“I hate when you say that!” What kind of language is considered correct, and what kind is wrong or unpleasant? In her book Like, Literally, Dude, Valerie Fridland, linguistics professor at the University of Nevada, conducts an investigation on how the English language has constantly been changing. Taking on a sociolinguistic perspective, her overarching thesis is that most of what we label fixed “rules” in language were only social preferences, and that the difference between language features we accept and those we “can’t tolerate” is only just “one of power and perspective.” Language has only been able to evolve the way it has because its so-called rules have continuously been broken by the social sphere.

Fridland’s goals are to commend and marvel at the vigor and originality of the linguistic transformation processes and challenge those who insist on linguistic prescriptivism, which refers to the preference for determined rules in language. She also asks readers to reassess their conventional notions of what constitutes a “beautiful” or “effective” language. Following the history and meanings of the prevalent uses of “um” and “uh,” “like,” “dude,” the “-in” replacement of “-ing” “literally,” vocal fry, and the recently surging use of a singular “they” to accommodate for genderqueer people, Fridland maintains a conversational style throughout the book, sprinkled with anecdotes and jokes that induce a smile, making Like, Literally, Dude a straightforward, entertaining introduction to the field of sociolinguistics.

Why and How Does Language Change?

In the book, Fridland explains why the English language has been able to change and evolve as much as it has. Whereas Latin rose as the “official” language, associated with scholarship, social status and cachet, English in comparison developed more freely, without the control of authorities determining correct usage. London’s rise to cultural prominence in the early modern period made English gain the kind of status Latin used to have; and then, the 18th century saw attempts to “purify” the English language. This is when the difference in speech habits and dialects became noticeable indicators of social class.

While some people may view words like "um," "uh," or "like" as irritating violations of “pure” English, Fridland argues that they fulfill a social need and help listeners process new information more efficiently through their multiple communicative functions or “clues.” Linguistics research has revealed how “um” is used before “sudden increases in syntactic or semantic complexity,” or when “encountering uncertainty or unfamiliarity” before speaking. The function of “like” exceeds mere quotation – it can also indicate looseness, or “tighten a sentence” by hinting at the listener to focus on what comes afterwards. Such discourse markers, as Fridland proves with much detail throughout the chapters, are far from mere redundant gibberish; they can actually be essential to establishing the meaning and intention of one’s speech.

Fridland further demonstrates interesting historical trajectories and social purposes of evolving neologisms, as well as words that acquire entirely different meanings. In linguistics, delexicalization and semantic bleaching are terms that describe the process through which a word loses its original meaning to acquire new ones. The one most familiar to English speakers is the adverb "literally.” “Literally” is now being used as an intensifier, like “very” or “extremely,” aside from its original meaning, which is “actual” or “real.” Similarly, the word "dude" has also acquired various meanings today, with a long and convoluted history that extends back to the late 19th century. With the awareness that many English speakers roll their eyes at these expressions, Fridland presents that there is no need.

Who Drives Language Change? —Gender in Language

Contrary to popular belief, it is the “people on the edges of social space, not those in the center” who “drive what language is to become.” Research in English and other languages showcase that the two main drivers of language change are young people and women. Young people have been shown to be the most innovative speakers, and according to Fridland, this is because children are quick to detect new speech patterns compared to older people, whose speech patterns become settled at one point. And women are described as having “[carried] the linguistic torch” by leading multiple ingenious changes, but paradoxically have also been pressured to use “proper” or “refined” language that may indicate high social status, their speech always having been more strictly policed. Fridland describes the paradox by explaining how women are “very sensitive to language forms and subtle variations,” much more so than men. “Sounding like a girl,” she writes, “is pretty much the pinnacle of linguistic achievement.”  

Moreover, Fridland introduces readers to how the dimensions of gender have modified the English language, such as how men’s desire to be seen as more masculine led to a high tendency for them to pick up more unconventional speech habits, like using “-in” endings instead of “-ing,” and how the societal disparagement and policing of women’s speech reinforced social biases and heteronormativity. Society has long characterized “typical” women’s speech features more negatively, belittling their talk as “chatty, gossipy, and less topically important than men’s.” Even terms like “shrill” and “gossip” serve to devalue the language of women, and men reverse the use of a new linguistic form when it becomes too associated with female use, which is known as linguistic retreat. Furthermore, the increasing use of the singular "they" to refer to nonbinary people is linked to attempts to deconstruct traditional gendered language, such as the entrenched “she” and “he” binary. By introducing the past thousand years’ worth of history of the common pronouns you, he, she, and they, Fridland unearths the fact that they did not, in fact, have stable meanings and usages, but rather, underwent massive adaptations.

Breaking down the historical, social backgrounds of seemingly incorrect types of language, Fridland demonstrates that linguistic “correctness” does not exist, and that people constantly transform language, hence making language a vibrant living force. Like, Literally, Dude is the perfect read for those who wish to explore the evolution of the English language and be introduced to sociolinguistic concepts about everyday language.

Book Information
Title: Like, Literally, Dude. Arguing for the Good in Bad English
Author: Valerie Fridland
Publisher: Viking

Publication Year: 2023

Pages: 336